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Kardinia International IB Psychology WIKI

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Add the correct tag so it shows up in the navigation correctly bio - biological level of analysis cog - cognitive level of analysis socio - sociocultural level of analysis paperthree - research methods abnormal - abnormal behaviour option health - health psychology option __If you think there should be a new category to file posts by, email Mr Peake or Ms Fitzgerald.__ =**Theory and practice in qualitative research**=
 * MAKE SURE YOU FILE THE PAGE CORRECTLY:**
 * **Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data.**


 * **Explain strengths and limitations of a qualitative approach to research.**
 * November 2010 **

__ Advantages __ __ Disadvantages __
 * 1. A questionnaire is to be used by a school administration to survey attitudes of parents towards the proposed introduction of lessons on birth control and sexually transmitted diseases. **
 * Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using e-mail as a means of obtaining research data for this specific survey. //[10 marks]// **
 * Talk about both advantages and disadvantages
 * Shy or reserved participants may contribute more in an e-mail questionnaire than a face-to-face interview, especially given the sensitive nature of this specific survey.
 * E-mail allows questionnaires to be conducted economically in terms of time and cost – responses can be readily copied and pasted into data analysis software or into reports.
 * Standardization and minimization of researcher expectancies are more readily achieved by using e-mail questionnaires rather than in face-to-face interviews.
 * More non-verbal information is likely to be inserted by participants in the form of acronyms (//e.g.// LOL) and emoticons (//e.g.// ;-) or :- than in responses to paper-based questionnaires.
 * However, these are neither spontaneous nor as varied as those discernable from face-to-face or telephone surveys.
 * Hesitations, pauses, changes in pitch, volume and speed of responses are all present in face-to-face communication but not in e-mail communication.
 * Neither anonymity nor verification of identity can be assured.
 * However, while the absence of non-verbal cues from the researcher can be considered an advantage, the same absence of non-verbal cues from the participant reduces the quality of the data obtained.

November 2007 To what extent do you agree with this statement?
 * **To what extent can findings be generalized from qualitative studies?**
 * 1) 1. “A problem with case studies is that they are usually too few to be of any real value to psychology since their findings cannot be generalized.”

-Many case studies are conducted for their intrinsic value where there is no intention to generalize the findings. -Extrinsic case studies may be chosen for their representativeness, findings may be generalized to similar situations. -Case studies are used to identify questions that need to be addressed in research – pilot study can be in the form of a case study conducted over a period of days, weeks or months.

Overview – Strengths – Limitations -Is an in-depth investigation of human experience -Aims to describe, understand and explain a psychological or social phenomenon from the perspective of the participant(s) -Useful to investigate sensitive topics such as poverty, health issues and domestic violence but also useful to investigate social processes in groups such as team conflicts -STRENGTHS: useful to investigate sensitive and complex issues that coult not be studied otherwise useful for studying group processes within a social group may generate new knowledge which challenges preconceived notions and contradicts established theory. -LIMITATIONS: Researcher bias, own beliefs and ideas could influence data collection. generalization of findings from a single case study or a small number of cases is not always possible risk of participant expectancy due to rapport


 * **Discuss ethical considerations in qualitative research.**

**Ethics need to be carefully considered when conducting a one to one semi-structured interview.** **Discuss ethical considerations** Interviewer must plan questions, none are ethically doubtful. Including matters of gender, age, ethnicity, religion etc. Interviewer should also prepare themselves on the subject matter of the interview. Interviewee informed of the aim and nature of research. Establish rapport with interviewee (A close and harmonious relationship in which the people understand each other's feelings or ideas and communicate well.) Reminded that info will be confidential. Right to leave interview at any time mentioned and written consent should be obtained. Interviewee offered opportunity to hear the recording, see transcript and require amendments to be made. Debriefing should be provided, opportunity for interviewee to withdraw data. __To obtain high marks, students must describe ethical considerations and discuss them.__
 * Before the interview takes place
 * During the interview
 * After the interview has finished

November 2007 // Discuss how ethics should be incorporated into the research process before, during and after conducting a one-to-one interview. //

- The interviewer needs to plan questions before to ensure that they don’t contain any ethically doubtful material.

ie/ age, gender, ethnicity, religion

- During the interview, the interviewee needs to be aware of his/her rights

ie/ confidentiality, anonymity, withdrawal rights

- After the interview, the interviewee should have the right to hear the recorded interview/read transcripts and make any alterations

Participants should be sent a report of research findings that arise

-Some argue that participants should also be offered an opportunity to participate in the research process itself by acting in a consultative manner.

//Debriefing//

-Participants must be informed about the results of the research. They should have the possibility to withdraw their data.

//Confidentiality and anonymity//

-Make sure that participants cannot be identified. Since participants’ own words are used as documentation for interpretation, names of participants can be changed.


 * **Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to qualitative research (for example, purposive sampling, snowball sampling).**

You are asked to carry out qualitative research that involves conducting interviews with a representative sample of four students from a school of 11- to 16-year-old boys and girls. The aim of the research is to investigate the views of students about school discipline. (a) Identify and describe one relevant sampling technique that you could use to select the four students. Syllabus point: Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to qualitative research (for example, purposive sampling, snowball sampling). This is a deliberately small sample since qualitative research aims to obtain in-depth responses to questions. Probably the best sampling technique would be purposive sampling, obtaining four students who would be able to give in-depth responses on school discipline. Neither random sampling nor opportunity sampling are relevant in this case and neither should be awarded marks. Since the school is co-educational it would be reasonable to accept that both boys and girls are selected, and that they represent different age groups. One could use stratified sampling in this case. Stratified sampling: Advantages: focuses on important subpopulations but ignores irrelevant ones improves the accuracy of estimation efficient sampling equal numbers from strata varying widely in size may be used to equate the statistical power of tests of differences between strata. Disadvantages: can be difficult to select relevant stratification variables not useful when there are no homogeneous subgroups can be expensive requires accurate information about the population.

**May 2005** **3. Examine one sampling technique used in qualitative data collection.** Since qualitative research is not based on inferential statistics then random selection techniques are not needed. Candidates who suggest this technique need to justify their choice in a clear, coherent manner. Other sampling techniques should each be justified on their merits and in this case convenience sampling could also be chosen, although candidates should demonstrate their knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages of this technique.


 * **Explain effects of participant expectations and researcher bias in qualitative research.**

**Discuss how both participant and researcher expectancies may affect the validity of qualitative research.** Operation of participant and researcher expectancies may make findings invalid. Behaviour may be atypical of normal behaviour therefore lacking ecological validity. Candidates may explain - performance in cognitive demanding tasks tends to decrease in the presence of an audience. Biased researchers almost certainly take less than objective view of behaviour they investigate. Hence, conclusions drawn from results may not be valid. __High marks for responses that present a detailed discussion of likely effects of both participant and research expectations on the validity of a research investigation.__


 * 3. (a) Discuss how researcher expectancies that can occur in //qualitative// research may invalidate the findings. //[4 marks]// **


 * Discuss how the operation of researcher expectancies may make the resulting findings invalid.
 * E.g. in relation to qualitative content analysis, researchers may take a less than objective view of a transcript; predetermined rather than emergent themes may be selected and emphasized, leading to bias.
 * This bias can be multiplied when themes are combined into larger categories and when conclusions are drawn.
 * Participant observers’ stereotypes of a group under study may bias their analysis.
 * Unstructured interviews are susceptible to bias as the beliefs and attitudes of the interviewer may influence the interview.


 * (b) Explain precautions that could be taken to overcome the problem of researcher expectancies. //[6 marks]// **


 * Researcher triangulation, where different researchers contribute to the process of research, should ensure that potential bias of any one individual researcher will be minimized.
 * Good practice in qualitative research ensures that individual researchers use the method of reflexivity to examine their beliefs, attitudes and values at the beginning and end of the research process.
 * The aim of this procedure is to make researchers themselves aware of potential biases and this may be enhanced by having other researchers question the neutrality of the research.


 * **Explain the importance of credibility in qualitative research.**

Triangulation – used to increase the credibility of the conclusions in a qualitative study. Allows a true picture to be generated. Credibility –based on an evaluation of whether or not the findings are a true interpretation Based on the assumption that multiple methods will allow biases to be overcome. Strengths and limitations are overcome for each area || Bias is reduced and credibility increased. Provides additional sources to describe the phenomenon. || Bias is reduced and credibility increased. Effective in counteracting researcher bias, as findings are discussed. || Bias is reduced and credibility increased. Promotes a deeper and more credible understanding of the topic under investigation This could reveal contradictions in the data and protect against researcher bias. || **May 2005** **1a. Identify three types of triangulation and briefly describe how each of these may be applied in qualitative research.** Candidates may select from any of four types mentioned in the syllabus that come from Denzin’s (1988) original types: Examiners should not award marks for the use of the experimental method unless it is used explicitly in a case study context. Since the question requires application, candidates must make the selected types relevant. For example, investigator triangulation can be used when a team of researchers each interviews participants one at a time. **1b. Discuss how the use of one type of triangulation may affect credibility in qualitative research.** From the syllabus: Explain the effect of triangulation on the credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative research. In qualitative research the concept of credibility does not have the same connotation as consistency or reliability where these two terms are used in quantitative research. Triangulation is used in qualitative research to give more credence to its findings. The term ‘trustworthiness’ may be a more appropriate word to use for triangulation. Despite these points credibility can be supported as a general outcome of triangulation if separate methods, for example, do result in fairly close agreement.
 * **Explain the effect of triangulation on the credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative research.**
 * November 2009:** Discuss how triangulation can be used in order to increase the effectiveness of research in investigating behaviour.
 * || Method Triangulation || Data Triangulation || Researcher Triangulation || Theory Triangulation ||
 * How || Use of different methods (interviews, observations etc) || Comparison of data from multiple sources (observations, participant, pictures) || Use of more than one researcher to collect and analyse the data || Use of several and perhaps competing theories to analyse the data ||
 * Effect || Bias is reduced and credibility increased.
 * Data triangulation
 * Investigator triangulation
 * Theory triangulation
 * Methodological triangulation


 * **Explain reflexivity in qualitative research.**



a.-To identify 2 different sampling techniques **1 mark for each identified** a. -To accurately describe each technique **1 mark for each technique accurately described** b.-To accurately evaluate each technique (pros and cons) b.- Show an understanding of how these affect things for either technique
 * 2012 question: Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to qualitative research. **
 * Similar to: Nov 2003.**
 * Therefore need to:**
 * 1a. Describe 2 different sampling techniques suitable for use in qualitative research.**
 * 1b. Evaluate the two techniques that you have described in part a.**
 * Mark scheme: **
 * for part 1b. 1-2 marks are awarded for each limited evaluation. The full 3 marks are awarded for each evaluation if it also displays knowledge and understanding (how it affects validity etc.)**

a.-Clearly define interviews (show understanding of different interview types)**1 mark** a.-Outline clearly the limits of interviews **6-7 marks** b- Discuss and evaluate ways to reduce these problems **1-2 marks**
 * 2012 question: ** **Discuss considerations involved before, during and after an interview.**
 * 2012 question: ** **Explain how researchers use inductive content analysis on interview transcripts.**
 * Similar to Nov 2003**
 * Therefore need to:**
 * 2a. Outline the limits of interviews (ethical, data depth, validity/reliability etc).**
 * 2b. Partially examine ways to prevent this and how so evaluate other problems**
 * Mark scheme: **

a.-To identify 3 different triangulation techniques **1 mark for each identified explicitly** b.-To accurately evaluate each technique (pros and cons) b.- Show an understanding of how these affect things for either method of triangulation (Link these to how it affects validity and reliability and then how these affect credibility.)
 * 2012 question: Explain the effect of triangulation on the credibility/trustworthiness of quantitative research. **
 * Similar to: Nov 2003.**
 * Therefore need to:**
 * 3a. Outline three types of triangulation**
 * 3b. Evaluate the claim that the use of triangulation increases the credibility of research findings.**
 * Mark scheme: **
 * For part 3b. award 1-2 marks for evidence of a very limited understanding of the limits and benefits of triangulation.**
 * Award 3-5 for a one side sided evaluation or partially limited understanding/explanation of the question.**
 * Award 6-7 marks for answers that include pros __and__ cons of triangulation and so provided an informed explanation of the question (do they affect credibility)**

= November 2004 =

Discuss considerations involved before, during, and after an interview - Reason for the interview - The right to withdraw at anytime - Confidentiality and anonymity - The right to alter the transcript or recordings produced during the interview
 * 1. ** ** When interviewing techniques are used the researcher needs to be aware of the ethical considerations involved in the interview situation. Discuss the ethical considerations relevant to the interviewing process and their effects on the data produced. **
 * Ethical considerations are important at all stages of the interview process
 * A prepared statement should be read to each interviewee just prior to the interview that indicates
 * Training of the interviewer is important in order to avoid interviewer effects – effects caused by the presence of a particular interview
 * Data recording must be considered in the preparation of the interview – taking notes during the interview interferes with eye contact and non-verbal communication, but in some situations it may be the only solution
 * Transcription of the data – how to change the interview into a written text that can be used for analysis
 * 1) **2. ** **(a) Explain, using ****//one //****example, why a small scale survey may be useful in psychological research. **
 * Main reason for a small scale survey is to obtain representative responses from a sample of people whose views reflect those of the target population
 * The small scale survey is relatively economical although its limited size may throw some doubt upon its representative quality