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>> || Individualism vs. collectivism || How much members of the culture define themselves apart from their group memberships. In individualistic cultures, people are expected to develop and display their individual personalities and to choose their own affiliations. In collectivist cultures, people are defined and act mostly as a member of a long-term group, such as the family, a religious group, an age cohort, a town, or a profession, among others. This dimension was found tot move towards the individualist end of the spectrum with increasing national wealth. || >> || Masculinity vs. femininity || The value placed on traditionally male or female values (as understood in most western cultures). In so-called masculine cultures, people value competitiveness, assertiveness, ambition, and the accumulation of wealth and material possessions. In so-called feminine cultures, people value relationships and quality of life. || >> || Weak vs. strong uncertainty avoidance || How much members of a society are anxious about the unknown, and as a consequence, attempt to cope with anxiety by minimizing uncertainty. In cultures with strong uncertainty avoidance, people prefer explicit rules (religion and food) and formally structured activities, and employees tend to remain longer with their present employer. In cultures with weak uncertainty avoidance, people prefer implicit or flexible rules or guidelines and informal activities. Employees tend to change employers more frequently. || >> || Long vs. short term orientation || society's time horizon, or the importance attached to the future versus the past and present. In long-term oriented societies, people value actions and attitudes that affect the future: persistence/perseverance, thrift, and shame. China and other Asian countries have a long term orientation. Relationships are based on status. They have a need to protect the collective identity and respect tradition- what is often called 'saving face'. In short-term oriented societies, people value actions and attitudes that are affected by the past or the present: normative statements, immediate stability, protecting one's own face, respect for tradition, and reciprocation of greetings, favours and gifts. Hofstede found that Finland, France and Germany (and US) are short-term oriented societies. In comparison, these cultures value personal steadiness and stability. There is a focus on the future instead of the past, and innovation is highly valued. || >> || Evaluation- || Ecological fallacy; looking at people from two different cultures means they will be totally different; false. Assuming that a single member of a culture will always demonstrate the dimensions which are the norm of that culture. ||
 * Deep culture- related to beliefs, attitudes, and values which underpin cultural manifestations.
 * Descriptions of cultural factors can be used to understand how people have survived in their environment, how they have organized life in social groups, and what beliefs, attitudes, and norms influence behaviour in the social and cultural groups.
 * Cultural factors may lead to specific kinds of behaviour- IE tribal law describing what to do in case of certain situations.
 * According to Lonner, culture can be defined as common rules that regulate interactions and behaviour in a group as well as a number of shared values and attitudes in the group.
 * Western view- attempting to find universal behaviours, that is looking for 'rules' of behaviour that could be applied to all cultures around the world.
 * Known as an 'etic' approach to psychology.
 * Etic study involves drawing on the notion of universal properties of cultures, which share common perceptual, cognitive, and emotional structures.
 * Emic approach looks at behaviours that are culturally specific.
 * Important to recognize cultural variations in order to best understand members of other cultural groups.
 * Mead (1935)
 * Three cultures living close in New Guinea
 * One where western feminine/masculine roles reversed
 * One where both displayed masculine qualities
 * One where both displayed feminine qualities.
 * Culture is define by Matsumoto (2004) as 'a dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit, established by groups in order to ensure their survival, involving attitudes, values, beliefs, norms and behaviours'
 * Cultural norm are behaviour patterns that are typical of specific groups. They are often passed down from generation to generation by observational learning from the group's gatekeepers.
 * Dimensions- perspectives of a culture based on values and cultural norms
 * Hofstede's
 * Different negotiating strategies in different countries
 * Western objective is to work towards a target of mutual understanding and agreement, and shake hands when agreement is reached- cultural signal of the end of negotiations and the start of working together.
 * Middle eastern, much negotiating takes place leading into the agreement, signified by shaking hands, but this usually signals the fact that serious negotiations are just beginning.
 * Dimensions
 * Small vs. large power distance || How much the less powerful members of institutions expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. In cultures with small power distance (democratic) people expect and accept power relations that are more equal or democratic. People relate to each other more as equals regardless of formal positions. Subordinates are more comfortable with and demand the right to contribute to and critique the decisions of those in power. In cultures with large power distance (Malaysia) the less powerful accept power relations that are autocratic or paternalistic. Subordinates acknowledge the power of others based on their formal, hierarchical positions. Measures how people perceive power. ||
 * Small vs. large power distance || How much the less powerful members of institutions expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. In cultures with small power distance (democratic) people expect and accept power relations that are more equal or democratic. People relate to each other more as equals regardless of formal positions. Subordinates are more comfortable with and demand the right to contribute to and critique the decisions of those in power. In cultures with large power distance (Malaysia) the less powerful accept power relations that are autocratic or paternalistic. Subordinates acknowledge the power of others based on their formal, hierarchical positions. Measures how people perceive power. ||
 * Proxemic theory- Hall (1966)
 * Based on a culture's need for personal space.
 * Different cultures have different perceptions of the amount of personal space that is required to be comfortable.
 * US, people assume social distance of 10-15 cm
 * Only most intimate friends allowed into this bubble.
 * Distance in Europe is half that.
 * Time consciousness-
 * Monochromic cultures focused on one thing at a time; emphasis of scheduling, punctuality and meeting deadlines.
 * Polychromic cultures- focus is on relationships and interactions. Many things happen at once. Interruptions are expected as part of life, and there is little frustration experienced when things are postponed or late.