Observations

Participant Observation
Plays a dual role, both as a participant and observer of the same group. This kind of research is unstructured. The researcher collects any and all data that may seem to be relevant. No decision is made about what data to collect before entering the field. This observation focuses on social processes and the interaction between people. The research is concerned with ongoing events and meanings that these happenings may have for those involved. It is primarily descriptive information that can be found.

Loftland (1976) suggested six key categories of information in participant research: 1. Act (short actions) 2. Activities (actions lasting several days) 3. Meanings (participants explanations for their actions) 4. Participation (the various roles participants play) 5. Relationships among the group 6. Settings (where the events take place)

· Allows insight into context, relationship and behaviour by being part of this community. · Combines the subjective participant perspective, with the objective participant perspective o As if you are on the outside looking in you don't get the subjective experience · Provides very detailed and in depth knowledge of a topic, which cannot be gained by other methods. · One of the best methods to avoid researcher bias because the researchers seek to understand how and why the social processes are the way they are instead of imposing their own reality on the phenomenon. · Provides a holistic view, takes into account as many aspects as possible.
 * Strengths**

· Time consuming and demanding - the researcher needs to be physically present and try to live the life of the people he or she is studying. · Difficult to record data promptly and objectively o As you are living it you can't be recording it at the same time. · Requires personal discipline and diligence. · Requires conscious effort at objectivity. There is a delicate balance between involvement and detachment.
 * Weaknesses Participant observation**

There are ethical issues raised, especially when the observer is concealed thus deception is a major element. It can be demeaning for the participants, to find that someone has been watching them. There is the tendency for the research to become part of the group and loose the objectivity of observation.
 * Ethics of Participant observation**

Non-Participant Observation
Does not have any interaction with the participants. They may be unaware that they are being observed, therefore assuming that the observed behaviour has been unaffected by the process of collecting data. It is far more quantifiable than participant observation as more expansive notes can be taken.

It begins with an experimental hypothesis, then devising the behavioural categories that are going to be observed. The behaviour that qualifies for each category should be defined in a precise and objective way so that there is as little ambiguity Categories need to be comprehensive; all behaviour relevant to the experimental hypothesis should be included

· High ecological validity - collection takes place in a natural environment and it is assumed that participant behave in natural ways (in contrast to laboratories) · Can be used to collect data in cases where it would be impossible or unethical to do so otherwise, for example - people with Alzheimer’s disease. · More defined than participant observation
 * Strengths**

· Can only analyse overt behaviour - you can't analyse feelings because you are not in there.
 * Limitations**

Participant expectancies frequently occur when non-participant observation is used as the research method. These occur whenever audiences are present, which makes the findings invalid because the participant’s behaviour is probably untypical of his or her normal behaviour. Such behaviour lacks validity.
 * Participant expectancies**

These come into play when the observer comes to the investigation with pre-existing bias, interpretation of what is going to happen. This blinkers you to seeing certain things. Biased researchers are almost certain to take a less than objective view of the behaviour they view. Thus the findings are likely to go in a predetermined direction.
 * Researcher expectancies**

Naturalistic Observation

 * Description
 * Naturalistic observation is where the experimenter observes the subject(s) in their natural environment. This observation can be overt or covert. Kampman 1998 studied how children in kindergarten developed friendships with other children. He spent six months in a kindergarten and found that children form friendships at a very early age. This is an example of a study using naturalistic observation- Kampman working in an actual kindergarten observing the children.
 * Strengths
 * Naturalistic observation has ecological validity. Data is gathered in the natural environment of the subject, and therefore it can be said that the participant's behaviour will reflect how they normally behave.
 * Naturalistic observation is also appropriate for scenarios where it would be impossible or unethical to do so otherwise. For example, observation of drug dealing or prostitution is impossible in a laboratory as it is illegal. Naturalistic observation can thus be beneficial in that the experimenter can leave and view the subject in their 'habitat' if it is outside the law.
 * Limitations
 * Risk that people do react to being observed (reactivity involved).
 * If the researcher collects the data alone, there may be problems in checking the data. However, multiple observers in the same field can compare data (inter observer reliability).
 * Ethical considerations: appropriateness of observing strangers without their knowledge. The researcher should be aware of not violating participant privacy.

Overt observation

 * Description
 * Observation refers to a qualitative research method in which the researcher observes and takes notes on the behaviour of a participant or participants. Overt observation is an observation technique in which the participant is aware of the interviewer’s presence and intention. This is generally contrasted with covert observation, in which the participant is unaware that they are being observed.
 * Strengths
 * Compared to covert observation, the strengths of overt observation in methodology are rather limited due to the fact that the perception of a researcher’s presence can alter a participant’s behaviour.
 * Despite this, a large strength in overt observation is the ethical value of such a practice. This research method allows a participant to give informed consent, a condition needed for an experiment to be declared ethical.
 * Additionally, overt observation may make desired behaviour easier to access as the researcher can set parameters before undertaking the study. For example, if an experimenter was interested in observing certain religious rituals. If an overt research method was used, the researcher could discuss when an appropriate time to research would be, however if a covert method was used much time could be wasted before desired behaviour could be observed.
 * Limitations
 * There is a risk of reactivity, that is, that participants react to being observed.
 * If the researcher collects that data on their own, there may be problems with checking the data. However, multiple observers in the same field can compare data to ensure matches.
 * Safety of the researcher- being observed could frustrate and/or infuriate participants
 * Very time-consuming because the researcher needs to establish a solid relationship with the participants to procure good results.

Grounded Theory Analysis
Grounded Theory Analysis is the main technique used to analyse data obtained in observational research. This analysis is based on the researcher’s noted that they took while in the field.

There are a few steps: · Provide a complete description of what behaviour you have taken an interest in. The context and the intentions should be given
 * Description:**

· Create categories of the observed behaviour and how they relate to the participants, their environment and others · These categories should be explained in a way that an onlooker can follow how they came to their decisions · Themes can be expanded into higher-order themes and subthemes
 * Coding the connecting themes:**

· Then all of this is condensed down into a written account on all the elements of the analysis · Triangulation could be used to help give credibility to the findings · Justification should be given to the conclusions reached in the text
 * Producing an Account:**

= Paper # 3 Markschemes for Observations =


 * Evaluate participant, non-participant, naturalistic, overt and covert observations.


 * //**Discuss considerations involved in setting up and carrying out an observation (for example, audience effect, Hawthorne effect, disclosure)**//
 * November 2009:** Discuss potential ethical problems associated with using participant observation in psychological research.

Participant Observation – the observer takes part in the situation being studied while doing the research – becomes part of the group (religious group, street gang, etc.) Strengths - Provides detailed and in-depth knowledge that cannot be gained by other methods - Avoids researcher bias by trying to understand how and why the social processes are the way they are, instead of imposing their own reality on them - Provides a holistic interpretation of a topic, taking into account as many aspects as possible Limitations - Difficult to record data promptly and objectively - Time consuming and demanding – researcher needs to be physically present in the lives of the people being studied - Risk that researchers lose objectivity living with the people being studied – delicate balance between involvement and detachment

Naturalistic – observation takes place in the participant’s natural environment – researcher avoids interfering with their behaviour Strengths - Ecological validity – takes place in a natural environment - Can collect data where it would be impossible to otherwise – such as research on people with Alzheimer’s disease Limitations - Risk of reactivity – that people will react to being observed - Difficult for one researcher to collect all the data alone – multiple observers may help reliability - Ethical concerns in observing strangers without their knowledge – should also be careful not to violate privacy of participants Covert – participants are not aware of being studied – researcher has to make up an excuse for being there – used in potentially dangerous settings or when it is important not to affect the behaviour of the participants – ethical issues include lack of consent and possible danger to researcher (Festinger cult study – 1956)

Discuss ethical issues that need to be considered when participant observation is used in qualitative research. Syllabus point: Evaluate participant, non ‑ participant, naturalistic, overt and covert observations/ Discuss ethical considerations in qualitative research. Overt and covert participant observation Overt - the researcher becoming part of a group activity over a suitable period of time sufficient for relevant observations to be made. Importantly, the others in the group are made aware of the researcher’s presence. For some group members the presence of the researcher may inhibit their normal actions or in some cases alter behaviour in other ways that are akin to a Hawthorne effect. Therefore, some candidates may argue that the presence of a newcomer to the group for research purposes only, could be unethical since they would not necessarily have given their approval for this arrangement. Covert - Covert observation, where the researcher’s true identity is not revealed, presents more ethical problems, although the use of this method may be justified in terms of the end results presented in valuable findings. Deceit is involved, group members are not consulted, researchers may manipulate the situation in order to provoke certain actions, or recordings may be made without anonymity or confidentiality clauses being agreed. .
 * Discuss how researchers analyse data obtained in observational research.

**Identify and evaluate ways of recording behaviour that may be used in research involving participant observation.** 'Participant observation' meaning an observer who is a complete participant. Responses may include overt and covert participant observation. Recording may be achieved by hidden or open audio or video recording or discreet note-taking. Overt - usually involves researcher becoming part of group activity. Others in group are made aware of researcher's presence (not always of the method of recording behaviour though). Normal behaviour of group is maintained without fear of recording. Covert - researchers identity not revealed. Deceit is involved, group not consulted, and researchers may manipulate situation to provoke certain actions. Recordings may be made secretly without anonymity or confidentiality. Evaluation may include comments on ethical, cultural or methodological considerations involved. Students may include evidence from relevant studies. __High marks for identification and effective evaluation of recording methods appropriate to participant observation.__