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>>> || Written material || Small || Moderate || >>> || Internet || Small || Weak || >>> || Consultations with nurse || Small to moderate || Moderate || >>> || Consultations with doctor || Moderate || Moderate || >>> || Consultations with cessation instructor || Moderate to high || Moderate || >>> || Group-based cessation treatment || High || Strong || >>> || Nicotine replacement therapy || High || Strong || >>> || Zyban || High || Weak to moderate || >>> || Alternative treatment || None || Weak ||
 * Substance: anything people ingest to alter mood cognition or behaviour.
 * Addiction
 * Suggests that the individual cannot control his/her behaviour.
 * Characterized by 'behavioural and other responses that always include a compulsion to use the substance continuously, in order to experience the psychological and physiological effects and to avoid discomfort in its absence.
 * Substance use
 * Consumption of any substance
 * Substance addiction
 * Continued use of the substance despite knowing about problems associated with the substance.
 * Psychological addiction
 * Relates to 'craving'- strong desire to smoke.
 * Physiological addiction
 * Symptoms such as tolerance and withdrawal symptoms
 * Biological factors related to addictive behaviour
 * Effects of nicotine
 * Stimulates release of adrenaline
 * Stimulates release od dopamine in brain's reward circuits
 * Acts on acetylcholine receptors in brain- pretends to be natural neurotransitter. Causes brain to grow more receptors.
 * DiFranza et al. 2006
 * Longitudinal study of 217 US adolescents
 * All reported having inhaled a cigarette at least once.
 * Completed psychological evaluations and reported history of tobacco use, attitudes and beliefs, social environment etc.
 * 11 were interviewed- tobacco dependence was assessed based on cravings and changes in tolerance.
 * Found that those who reported an 'immediate experience of relaxation after the first puff' much more likely to become addicted. 67% becoming dependent, 91% unable to quit 60% saying it was as if they had lost control.
 * Evalution
 * Only 11 students.
 * US- not generalizable to other cultures.
 * Focuses on biological side of the even excludes cognitive reasons for relaxation
 * Cognitive and sociocultural factors related to addictive behaviour.
 * Charlton 1984
 * Young smokers associate smoking with fun & pleasure.
 * Smoking research focuses on individual factor- example, how attitudes or cognitions predict smoking behaviour.
 * Ogden 2004
 * Takes individuals out of their social context.
 * Person's behaviour and beliefs are developed through interaction with the social world.
 * Social learning theory
 * Smoking is learned.
 * Parental smoking
 * Bauman et al 1990
 * 80% of a sample of US adolescents aged 12-14 whose parents did not smoke had never tried to smoke themselves. If parents had, 50% of kids had trie dit.
 * Lader and Matheson 1991
 * Parental Attitudes towards smoking is very important.
 * Murray et al 1984
 * In families where parents were against smoking, children were up to seven times less likely to smoke.
 * Peer group pressure.
 * The peer group is a source of social identity and learning social norms.
 * Unger et al 2001
 * Cross-cultural survey on adolescent smoking.
 * 'representative US sample of Californian adolescents'
 * Found that european american students more likely to smoke than other minority students
 * Research suggests that in individualistic cultures, adolescents create their own youth culture, characterized by rebellion, to et themselves apart from parents.
 * In collectivist, the bond between children and parents is considered important. Rebellion not tolerated so adolescents more likely to conform.
 * Social class found to predict smoking.
 * More common in adults who live below poverty level (30%) compared to above poverty level (20%)
 * Prevention strategies
 * Bands on advertising, raising taxes
 * Banning smoking in public places
 * Treatments
 * Problem is dealing with withdrawal symptoms.
 * Nicotine replacement therapy
 * Nicotine chewing gun, patches, spray
 * Works to prevent short-term relapse.
 * Zyban
 * Originally an antidepressant, but also works to relieve withdrawal symptoms.
 * Research suggests that if treatment is 'tailored to the individual's situation' there is a greater chance of success.
 * Pisinger 2008
 * Studid research on effects of interventions at individual level.
 * Concluded that methods including consultations, participation in groups were the most efficient.
 * Method || Effect || Evidence ||
 * Method || Effect || Evidence ||